موضوع: "بدون موضوع"
Islamic Azad University
Ilam Science And Research Branch
Faculty of Humanities, Department of English Language Teaching
Thesis for Receiving “M.A” Degree on A Teaching
English as a Foreign Language (TEFL)
Subject:
Investigating Ilami EFL teachers’ performance in pronunciation of neutral and non-neutral suffixes
Thesis Advisor:
Gowhari Ph.D
Consulting Advisor:
Azizifar Ph.D
September 2014
(در فایل دانلودی نام نویسنده موجود است)
تکه هایی از متن پایان نامه به عنوان نمونه :
(ممکن است هنگام انتقال از فایل اصلی به داخل سایت بعضی متون به هم بریزد یا بعضی نمادها و اشکال درج نشود ولی در فایل دانلودی همه چیز مرتب و کامل است)
Table of Contents
List of Tables. VIII
List of Figures. IX
Acknowledgment IV
Dedication. V
Abstract 1
1-1 Over view.. 3
1-2 Introduction. 3
1-3 Statement of problem.. 7
1-4 Research questions. 7
1-5 Research hypotheses. 7
1-6 Significance of the study. 8
1-7 Definitions of technical terms. 8
2-1 Overview.. 11
2-2 Iranian Studies. 11
2-3 Foreign Studies. 13
2-4 Theoretical base of the study. 18
2-5Categories of Suffixes. 20
2-5-1 Non-neutral (Strong) suffixes. 21
2-5-2 Neutral suffixes. 22
2-6 Derivation in lexical morphology. 23
3-1 overview.. 29
3-2 Research questions. 29
3-3 Research design. 29
3-4 Participants. 30
3-5 Instruments. 31
3-5-1 Questionnaire. 32
3-5-2 Reliability and Validity. 32
3-6 Data collection procedures. 32
3-7 Data analysis. 33
4-1 overview.. 35
4-2 Demographic information. 35
4-3 Descriptive statistics. 36
4-3-1 The frequency of the answers to the pronunciation questions. 37
4-3-2 The frequency of the answers to the pronunciation questions based on gender 38
4-3-3 The frequency of the answers to the pronunciation questions based on academic degree. 40
4-3-4 The frequency of the answers to the pronunciation questions based on the place of teaching English. 42
4-3-5 The frequency of the answers to the pronunciation questions based on teaching experience. 44
4-4 Investigating research hypotheses by using inferential statistics. 46
4-4-1 First Hypothesis: 47
4-4-2 Second Hypothesis: 47
4-4-3 Third Hypothesis: 48
4-4-4 Fourth Hypothesis: 49
4-5 Discussion. 50
5-1 overview.. 52
5-2 Summary. 53
5-3 conclusion. 54
5-4 Implications. 55
5-5 limitations of the study. 55
5-6 Suggestions for further studies. 56
Appendix. 57
Reference. 68
List of Tables
Table 3-1 Background information about participants of the study. 30
Table 4-1 Background information about participants of the study. 36
Table 4-2 The frequency of the answers to the pronunciation questions. 37
Table 4-3 The frequency of the answers to the pronunciation questions based on gender 39
Table 4-4 The frequency of the answers to the pronunciation questions based on academic degree. 41
Table 4-5 The frequency of the answers to the pronunciation questions based on the place of teaching English. 43
Table 4-6 The frequency of the answers to the pronunciation questions based on teaching experience. 45
Table 4-7 The results obtained by applying Man-whitney U Test 47
Table 4-8 The results obtained by applying Man-whitney U Test 48
Table 4-9 The results obtained by applying Man-whitney U Test 48
Table 4-10 The results obtained by applying Kruskal–Wallis Test 49
List of Figures
Figure 3-1 Background information about participants of the study. 31
Figure 4-1 The frequency of the answers to the pronunciation questions. 38
Figure 4-2 The frequency of the answers to the pronunciation questions based on gender 40
Figure 4-3 The frequency of the answers to the pronunciation questions based on academic degree. 42
Figure 4-4 The frequency of the answers to the pronunciation questions based on the place of teaching English. 44
Figure 4-5 The frequency of the answers to the pronunciation questions based on teaching experience. 46
Abstract
Mastering pronunciation in EFL context, where direct access to native speaker is scarce, is a highly challenging objective for many language students in Iran. Derivative words more specifically, pose their own problems. There are different types of suffixes, two of which are neutral and non-neutral. This study examines the effects of the gender, experience, academic degree and the teaching place of English teachers on the pronunciation of the neutral and non-neutral suffixes. The sample included 40 Ilamian EFL teachers teaching English at different high schools and institutes. None of teachers studied in English speaking countries. They were classified into two groups male and female with B.A. and M.A. degree who taught at different schools and institutes. To analyze data two kinds of test employed: The Man-Whitney U Test for gender, academic degree and place of teaching, and The Kruskal–Wallis
for teaching experience. There is no treatment in this study. According to these two tests and the analyses of dependant and independent variables, it can be concluded that there is no meaningful differences between female and male answers in the pronunciation of neutral and non-neutral suffixes. Also the difference between teachers having M.A and B.A degree with the pronunciation of neutral and non-neutral suffixes is not meaningful. But there is a meaningful difference between teaching place and the pronunciation of the neutral and non-neutral suffixes. Furthermore, conserning the last element, it can be said that there is no meaningful difference between three existed ranges of experience with the pronunciation of neutral and non-neutral suffixes.
Key words: pronunciation, derivative words, neutral suffixes, non-neutral suffixes
Chapter One
Introduction
1-1 Over view
The first chapter of this study addresses the introduction. It is organized in six major sections: a) introduction, b) statement of problem, c) research questions, e) research hypotheses, f) significance of the study and g) definition of the technical terms.
1-2 Introduction
When we think of English skills, the ‘four skills’ of listening, speaking, reading, and writing readily come to mind. Of course other skills such as pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, and spelling all play a role in effective English communication (Bauer, Laurie, 1988).
Listening skills are vital for learners. Of the ‘four skills,’ listening is by far the most frequently used. Listening and speaking are often taught together, but beginners, especially non-literate ones, should be given more listening than speaking practice. It’s important to speak as close to natural speed as possible, although with beginners some slowing is usually necessary. Without reducing your speaking speed, you can make your language easier to comprehend by simplifying your vocabulary, using shorter sentences, and increasing the number and length of pauses in your speech (Teschner & Whitley, 2004; Fudge, 1984).
Speaking English is the main goal of many adult learners. Their personalities play a large role in determining how quickly and how correctly they will accomplish this goal. Those who are risk-takers unafraid of making mistakes will generally be more talkative, but with many errors that could become hard-to-break habits. Conservative, shy students may take a long time to speak confidently, but when they do, their English often contains fewer errors and they will be proud of their English ability. It’s a matter of quantity vs. quality, and neither approach is wrong. However, if the aim of speaking is communication and that does not require perfect English, then it makes sense to encourage quantity in your classroom. Break the silence and get students communicating with whatever English they can use, correct or not and selectively address errors that block communication. Speaking lessons often tie in pronunciation and grammar which are necessary for effective oral communication (Teschner & Whitley, 2004; Fudge, 1984).
We encounter a great variety of written language day to day — articles, stories, poems, announcements, letters, labels, signs, bills, recipes, schedules, questionnaires, cartoons, the list is endless. Literate adults easily recognize the distinctions of various types of texts (Teschner & Whitley, 2004; Fudge, 1984).
Good writing conveys a meaningful message and uses English well, but the message is more important than correct presentation. If you can understand the message or even part of it, your student has succeeded in communicating on paper and should be praised for that. For many adult ESL learners, writing skills will not be used much outside your class. This doesn’t mean that they shouldn’t be challenged to write, but you should consider their needs and balance your class time appropriately. Many adults who do not need to write will enjoy it for the purpose of sharing their thoughts and personal stories, and they appreciate a format where they can revise their work into better English than if they shared the same information orally (Celce-Murcia et al, 1996; Laroy, 1995).
Grammar is often named as a subject difficult to teach. Its technical language and complex rules can be intimidating (Gainesville, William (1987). Teaching a good grammar lesson is one thing, but what if you’re in the middle of a reading or speaking activity and a student has a grammar question? Some students may have studied grammar in their home countries and be surprised that you don’t understand, “Does passive voice always need the past participle?” But even if your student’s question is simple and jargon-free, explaining grammar is a skill you will need to acquire through practice. If you don’t know how to explain it on the spot, write down the specific sentence or structure in question and tell the student you will find out. There are several resources below that can help you understand and explain various grammar issues (Anderson, R. C., & Freebody, P. 1983).
One of the most difficult troubles facing non-native speakers of English is pronunciation. It is usually the largest obstacle to overcome when trying to achieve fluency.
Pronunciation is an integral part of second or foreign language learning since it directly affects learners’ communicative competence as well as performance on the career. It is the primary medium for communication in which people share ideas and understandings with each other (Jenkins, 2000). Correct pronunciation is an important factor determining the meaningfulness and success of communication.
Pronunciation involves far more than individual sounds. As defined by Peter Roach (2004), pronunciation has been viewed as the sum of three components. The components are sounds, stress and intonation. Word stress, sentence stress, intonation, and word linking all influence the sound of spoken English, not to mention the way we often slur words and phrases together in casual speech (Roach, 2004). ‘What are you going to do?’ becomes ‘Whaddaya gonna do?’ English pronunciation involves too many complexities for learners to strive for a complete elimination of accent, but improving pronunciation will boost self esteem, facilitate communication, and possibly lead to a better job or at least more respect in the workplace. Effective communication is of greatest importance, so choose first to work on problems that significantly hinder communication and let the rest go (Jenkins, 2000). Remember that your students also need to learn strategies for dealing with misunderstandings, since native pronunciation is for most an unrealistic goal. A student’s first language often interferes with English pronunciation. For example, /p/ is aspirated in English but not in Spanish, so when a Spanish speaker pronounces ‘pig’ without a puff of air on the /p/, an American may hear ‘big’ instead (Freyd, P., & Baron, J. 1982). Sometimes the students will be able to identify specific problem sounds and sometimes they won’t. You can ask them for suggestions, but you will also need to observe them over time and make note of problem sounds. Another challenge resulting from differences in the first language is the inability to hear certain English sounds that the native language does not contain. Often these are vowels, as in ‘ship’ and ‘sheep,’ which many learners cannot distinguish. The Japanese are known for confusing /r/ and /l/, as their language contains neither of these but instead has one sound somewhere between the two. For problems such as these, listening is crucial because students can’t produce a sound they can’t hear (Dalton, D. 2002). Descriptions of the sound and mouth position can help students increase their awareness of subtle sound differences (Morley, J. 1991).
ISLAMIC AZAD UNIVERSITY
ILAM SCIENCE AND RESEARCH BRANCH
Thesis for Receiving M.A. Degree on English Language Teaching
English as a Foreign Language (TEFL)
Subject
Iranian Kurdish-Speaking High School Students’ Beliefs about English Language Teachers and Learners
Supervisor
Azizifar. Ph.D
Advisor
Gowhary. Ph.D
Winter 2015
(در فایل دانلودی نام نویسنده موجود است)
تکه هایی از متن پایان نامه به عنوان نمونه :
(ممکن است هنگام انتقال از فایل اصلی به داخل سایت بعضی متون به هم بریزد یا بعضی نمادها و اشکال درج نشود ولی در فایل دانلودی همه چیز مرتب و کامل است)
Contents
Abstract 1
1.1 Introduction. 3
1.2. Statement of the Problem.. 5
1.3. Research Questions. 6
1.4. Objectives and Significance of the Study. 7
1.5. Definition of the Key Words. 8
1.6. Outline of the Study. 9
2.1. Review of the Related Literature. 13
2.1.1. The Conceptual Framework of Metaphor 14
2.1.2. Studies on Learners’ Beliefs about Language Learning and Teaching. 15
2.2. Teachers’ and Learners’ Roles in the Design of Dominant Language Learning and Teaching Methods. 29
3.1. Methodology. 34
3.1.1. Participants. 34
3.1.2. Instruments. 35
3.1.3. Design of the Study. 36
3.1.4. Procedure of Data Collection and Analysis. 36
4.1. Results. 39
4.1.1. Metaphors about EFL Teachers’ Roles. 40
4.1.2. Metaphors about EFL Learners’ Roles. 49
4.1.3. Results as a whole. 57
4.2. Discussion of the Results. 58
4.2.1. Discussion of Metaphors about Language Teacher’s Roles. 59
4.2.2. Metaphors about Language Learner’s Roles. 61
4.3. Relationship between Metaphors and the Roles Proposed in the Design of Language Learning and Teaching Methods. 63
5.1. Summary. 69
5.2. Conclusion. 70
5.3. Implications. 71
5.4. Limitations of the Study. 72
5.5. Suggestions for Further Research. 73
References. 75
Appendices. 79
List of Table
Metaphors developed by Iranian Kurdish-speaking EFL learners for the concept of an English language teacher 40
Metaphors developed by Iranian Kurdish-speaking EFL learners for the concept of an English language learner 49
List of Figure
. An illustration of metaphorical themes about EFL teachers’ roles generated by Iranian Kurdish-speaking high school students. 48
. An illustration of metaphorical themes about EFL learners’ roles generated by Iranian Kurdish-speaking high school students. 57
Abstract
Language learners come to educational contexts with preconceived beliefs about different aspects of language teaching and learning. These perceptions are not clear and concrete enough to language teachers and even the language learners themselves. In line with the change and increase in the direction of the qualitative studies conducted on beliefs elicited by use of metaphors all around the world, the present study aims at investigating the metaphorical reflections about language teachers’ and language learners’ roles by a group of Iranian Kurdish-Speaking high school students learning English-as-a-Foreign-Language (EFL) as their third language in a local context in Ilam, in western Iran. To this end, modified metaphor elicitation questionnaires as well as complementary short interviews were administered to a convenient sample of 86 participants. Using content analysis, the metaphorical expressions collected via completion of the metaphor prompts were structured into dominant thematic categories in terms of language teachers’ roles and language learners’ roles for further analysis. The metaphors were also examined to determine whether they fit into the roles assigned to language teachers and learners in the design of current language teaching and learning methods. Generally, the results revealed that the metaphorical images were in the same line with other previous studies. In addition, the elicited metaphors were comparatively for and against the proposed roles for EFL teachers and learners in educational settings. There were also several pedagogical implications for language teachers and language teacher educators and language education programs as well as suggestions for further investigations.
Keywords: Metaphor, EFL, Teacher’s Role, Learner’s Role, Method of Language Learning and Teaching, High School Student, Iran
Chapter 1:
Introduction
1.1. Introduction
Exploration of what language learners bring to educational contexts particularly the language classroom environment according to Wan, Low and Li (2011) is extremely important for monitoring and improving various aspects of language learning and teaching. What language learners bring into the language classroom is composed of a set of experiences and expectations related to their beliefs about different aspects of language learning and teaching (Chastain, 1988, p.123; Riley, 2009; Wan et al, 2011). To name several aspects, there are experiences, perceptions and expectation associated with language learners’ roles and language teachers’ roles in their classrooms, the nature of language learning, the language itself, the learning process, the teaching and learning materials, the language teaching and learning environment and the like (Chastain, 1988, p.103; Wenden, 1999; Bernat & Gvozdenko, 2005; Oz, 2007).
According to Bernat and Gvozdenko (2005), beliefs are the result of a number of factors including past experience, cultural background, educational contexts, and many other affective, cognitive, and personal factors. Beliefs according to Richardson (1996) are defined as “psychologically held understandings, premises, or propositions about the world that are felt to be true” (p.102). In this way, those who are involved in the process of teaching and learning, particularly language teacher and language learners and their beliefs and views to learning a new language certainly affect the learning process, the success of the learners and their improvements, the performance of language teachers, the design of language education materials, and the other (Ahkemoglu, 2011; Wan et al, 2011).
Since learners’ beliefs have been emphasized as a helpful factor in the success or failure of language learning and teaching, investigating the beliefs of language learners can provide helpful information for language education (Bernat and Gvozdenko, 2005). There are studies that are about learners’ beliefs about language learning and teaching such as studies conducted by Altan (2006); Bernat and Gvozdenko (2005); Tanaka and Ellis (2003); and Zare-ee (2010). These studies have used different quantitative instruments to elicit learners’ beliefs about language education. For example, many studies (for example Bernat and Lloyd, 2007; Buyukyazi, 2010; Man-fat, 2008; Mohebi and Khodady, 2011) have used BALLI (Beliefs About Language Learning Inventory, Horwitz, 1988). These instruments and studies show the beliefs of learners in a quantitative form and do not provide the personal images of language learners.
Recently, research on beliefs has used qualitative instruments such as metaphors to get learners’ beliefs about different aspects of language education. The main reason for using metaphors is the metaphorical nature of beliefs and the way learners perceive the world and reality (Ahkemoglu, 2011). There are several studies investigating learners’ beliefs about different aspects of language education by using metaphors such as Nikitina and Furuoka (2008); Kesen (2010a, 2010b); Huang (2011); and Wan, Low and Li (2011), to name just a few; but these studies have been done in non-Iranian English-as-a-Foreign-Language (EFL) contexts and they also have focused on EFL learners in academic contexts.
Although there are several recent studies in an Iranian EFL context (such as Parvaresh, 2008; Pishghadam and Pourali, 2011; Farjami, 2012a, 2012b, 2012c; Askarzadeh Torghabeh, Elahi and Khanalipour, 2009) in the area of beliefs about the different aspects of language learning and teaching; they are mostly in academic contexts and EFL learning and teaching in high school contexts especially in local areas where there are bilingual students learning English as a third language is overlooked.
UNIVERSITÉ AZAD ISLAMIQUE
Unité Centrale de Téhéran
Faculté de Langues Étrangères
Mémoire
En vue de l’obtention de la maîtrise
En langue et littérature françaises
Sujet :
La littérature féministe, du Moyen-Ȃge au XXe siècle
Sous la direction de :
Mme le Docteur Maryam Soudipour
Profersseur conseiller :
Mme le Docteur Shahla Haéri
2015
(در فایل دانلودی نام نویسنده موجود است)
تکه هایی از متن پایان نامه به عنوان نمونه :
(ممکن است هنگام انتقال از فایل اصلی به داخل سایت بعضی متون به هم بریزد یا بعضی نمادها و اشکال درج نشود ولی در فایل دانلودی همه چیز مرتب و کامل است)
Le sommaire
La littérature féministe est un terme donné à un genre littéraire inspiré par les experiences des femmes; la notion qui met accent sur les différences entre les hommes et les femmes mais aussi entre les femmes elles-mêmes; Il ne s’agit pas de différences biliogiques mais plutôt sociales et culturelles. Cela dit, ces experiences se distinguent définitivement par les époques et les conditions historiques.
Au XX siècle les femmes entrent de plus en plus dans le monde littéraire mais comment elles étaient au XVII siècle? Étant donné que la comparaison des oeuvres féminines est très vaste, nous avons décidé de limiter cette humble recherche en faisant la comparaison entre les deux cas de La Princesse de Clèves et Du Côté de chez Swann, deux oeuvres qui appartiennent à deux époques différentes. L’une rédigée par une femme écrivain, et l’autre par un
auteur qui montre une image de l’amour inspiré par une femme.
Explorant les deux œuvres c’est bien évident que l’amour et la jalousie sont le deux thèmes principaux. Donc, dans le premier chapitre nous avons étudié la naissance de l’amour dans La Princesse de Clèves et Du côté de chez Swann, et en comparant les différentes situations chez les personnages principaux de ces auteurs, nous avons distingué les différences qui existent entre ces deux œuvres qui, chacune appartient à une époque : l’une au XXe siècle, et l’autre au XVIIe. Etant donné que la jalousie est liée à l’amour, nous avons consacré le deuxième chapitre de notre humble recherche à l’étude de ce sentiment, à connaître son aspect négatif ou positif dans la vie des deux personnages essentiels. Toutes les deux œuvres ont une fin tragique, donc le troisième chapitre de notre travail est consacré à analyser le dénouement dans ces deux œuvres.
Introduction
Pour une femme, « écrire » était toujours un moyen pour renverser l’ordre social : elle entre ainsi dans un domaine qui lui est interdit ; pourtant elle a toujours écrit. Même si on lui a fixé des conditions, elle a écrit de sa plainte d’être la mal mariée, de la chronique du quotidien, de sa délicatesse du coeur et des déchirures de sa passion.
Au XXe siècle, les femmes entrent de plus en plus dans le monde littéraire ; mais comment elles étaient au XVIIe siècle ? Étant donné que la comparaison des oeuvres féminines est très vaste, nous avons décidé de limiter cette humble recherche en faisant la comparaison entre les deux cas de La Princesse de Clèves et Du Côté de chez Swann, deux oeuvres qui appartiennent à deux époques différentes. L’une rédigée par une femme écrivain, et l’autre par un auteur qui montre une image de l’amour et de l’art.
Rien ne peut être plus fort ou plus beau qu’une relation réussie avec les autres. En effet, rien de plus fort, de plus puissant qu’une relation d’amour, ou qu’une indéfectible amitié. Pourtant il est sûrement difficile d’aller vers les autres, de réaliser une vraie rencontre. Et qu’est-ce que l’amour ? Comment pourrions-nous définir le mystère de l’amour ? Nous allons déchiffrer le mystère de cette passion destructive chez Odette, dans la défaite de Swann, dans le fameux Un amour de Swann, en le comparant avec une œuvre célèbre de Mme de La Fayette, La Princesse de Clèves, rédigée au XVII e siècle.
Un amour de Swann, récit court et indépendant du reste de l’œuvre, constitue la deuxième partie de Du côté de chez Swann, et est souvent publié séparément. Proust y délaisse la première personne, le personnage principal étant Charles Swann, bien qu’on ne puisse douter qu’il soit un alter ego de l’auteur.
L’amour de Swann, l’homme le plus élégant de sa génération, l’amateur délicat et supérieurement intelligent, pour une femme sans valeur et dont il n’aime même pas le type, est analysé dans un récit plus ramassé que les autres récits de Proust. Un Amour de Swann est d’une très grande importance dans l’œuvre, car ce récit est destiné à présenter un modèle de l’amour qui, de l’aveu même du narrateur, devait avoir une influence particulière sur l’idée que celui-ci allait se faire de l’amour, et par suite sur sa conduite en amour. On y trouve aussi le premier tableau comique du ” petit clan ” des Verdurin, qui sont de riches bourgeois.
Madame de Lafayette est née à Paris, en 1634, sous le nom de Marie-Madeleine Pioche De La Vergne. Elle reçoit une solide éducation littéraire qui l’amène à être nommée fille d’honneur de la reine Anne d’Autriche à l’âge de 16 ans. Elle fréquente assidûment les salons précieux, dont La Princesse de Clèves porte inévitablement les marques, l’inspiration, et le vocabulaire.
Puis, son mariage avec le comte de Lafayette la propulse dans la haute noblesse.
La Princesse de Clèves fut publié de façon anonyme en 1678,ce qui attise les polémiques. Cette œuvre connaît immédiatement un vif succès : il étonne, surprend, provoque, dans les salons mondains, des débats passionnés autour de la peinture des sentiments amoureux.
Madame de Lafayette n’affirmera jamais publiquement être l’auteur de cet ouvrage, mais elle l’avouera à demi-mots dans une lettre adressée à l’un de ses conseillers. Elle a été influencée par deux courants d’idées. D’une part, on reconnaît, dans les réactions des personnages qui parcourent le roman, la Préciosité, mouvement initié par des femmes, qui revendique le droit au respect et prône le raffinement du langage et des manières. D’autre part, amie de La Rochefoucauld, dont la participation à l’écriture du roman est probable, Mme de La Fayette est marquée, comme lui, par la pensée janséniste par ses fondements religieux : celle-ci préconise des valeurs morales strictes, allant jusqu’au sacrifice de soi. Tout au long du roman, la jeune femme va en effet s’illustrer par sa fermeté face aux tentations de sa passion réciproque pour M. de Nemours. Les dernières lignes du roman achèvent alors les épreuves : après la mort de son mari, la princesse de Clèves avoue son amour à Monsieur de Nemours, puis se retire du monde à tout jamais. Ce dénouement attendu revêt en tout point les caractéristiques d’un dénouement de tragédie : la princesse, telle une héroïne
tragique, se trouve face à un dilemme dont elle ne trouvera l’issue qu’à travers la mort (ici symbolique- la mort au monde).
UNIVERSITÉ AZAD ISLAMIQUE
Branche centrale de Téhéran
Faculté des langues étrangères
Mémoire en vue de l’obtention de maîtrise
en apprentissage du français (M. A.)
Sujet:
La méthode communicative et l’élève du FLE à l’école élémentaire2014
Sous la direction de:
Madame le Docteur Azita Lessani
2014
(در فایل دانلودی نام نویسنده موجود است)
تکه هایی از متن پایان نامه به عنوان نمونه :
(ممکن است هنگام انتقال از فایل اصلی به داخل سایت بعضی متون به هم بریزد یا بعضی نمادها و اشکال درج نشود ولی در فایل دانلودی همه چیز مرتب و کامل است)
Resumé
Ce mémoire présente une réflexion sur l’approche communicative dans l’apprentissage d’une langue étrangère chez les élèves suivant les cours élémentaires en Iran.Il y a beaucoup de méthodes de l’enseignement du français comme langue secondaire. Ce que le professeur choisit d’enseigner est basé sur les objectifs. Si le but est la compétence communicative, les professeurs doivent introduire les constructions que les étudiants vont rencontrer.
Notre but dans cette recherche c’était une réponse à cette question: ”Comment on peut motiver et faciliter la prise de parole en français pour les enfants iraniens comme une langue étrangère alors que cette seconde langue n’est pas directement nécessaire pour communiquer dans la société iranienne?
’est au travers des lectures des études accomplies dans ce champ et les analyser et aussi grâce au contact des enfants et les poser des questions qu’on a pu trouver des réponses.
Sommaire
1.1.3. Des freins à l’acquisition d’une langue étrangère……………………….p. 25
1.3.1. Apprentissage langue maternelle et apprentissage d’un second idiome: quels statuts?……………………………………………………………………….p. 34
1.3.6. Comment favoriser la prise de parole?………………………………………p. 41
3.4. Comment penser l’entrée dans les apprentissages en français langue de scolarisation pour les enfants d’origine étrangère?……….p. 84
3.4.1. Dans ce contexte, que peut-on attendre d’une approche orientée FLS-FLSCo?……………………………………………………………………………………p. 84
Introduction
L’acquisition d’une langue est un phénomène intéressant chez l’être humain. Nous sommes la seule espèce vivante sur Terre qui ait développé tout un système lexical pour communiquer.
Nous avons aussi développé plusieurs langues et il en existe beaucoup plus dans le monde entier. Certains d’entre nous peuvent en acquérir une, deux, trois, ou quatre en plus de leur langue maternelle, mais la plupart des gens apprennent les langues dans un cadre scolaire.
A travers leur famille, les chansons ou Internet, les jeunes élèves savent déjà que d’autres langues existent. Alors, ce n’est pas la peine de leur dire que l’apprentissage des langues étrangères est utile pour leur avenir ! Ils sont curieux sur les langues étrangères. Pour eux, c’est quelque chose de magique.
Evidemment, tout le monde ne peut vivre dans un autre pays ou multiplier les vacances à l’étranger; alors, les échanges avec des élèves étrangers en utilisant un mot étranger par exemple, dire « sit down » pour faire asseoir son camarade, c’est très amusant pour un élève au cours élémentaire. Ils ont quelques notions, même si parfois il leur faut tout désapprendre parce que la prononciation n’est vraiment pas bonne.
L’apprentissage d’une langue étrangère (ou régionale) fait officiellement sa rentrée dans les programmes des écoles élémentaires. Dès le cycle des apprentissages fondamentaux, cet enseignement aura pour but la création des bases de l’apprentissage linguistique.
Il fixe les objectifs prioritaires qui visent à faciliter la maîtrise du langage: l’enfant sera amené à comprendre et
utiliser de façon pertinente des énoncés.
Plus tard, cet enseignement vise l’acquisition de compétences permettant un usage efficace de la langue étrangère dans un nombre limité de situations de communication adaptées au jeune enfant: l’apprentissage est centré sur des activités de communication.
Progressivement aux méthodes traditionnelles calquées sur l’enseignement des langues mortes (c’est à dire axées sur la grammaire et la traduction), se sont substituées les méthodes directes (enseignement dans la langue étrangère), la priorité à l’oral était lancée !
Puis se sont mises en place les méthodes audio-orales et audio-visuelles. On procède à une écoute des énoncés sans l’aide de l’écrit, en faisant porter l’attention sur une bonne prononciation, on amène par la gestuelle, le mime, les élèves à répéter et à assimiler.
Aujourd’hui, de nombreux pédagogues de l’enseignement d’une langue vivante préconisent les approches communicatives où l’objectif principal est de permettre aux élèves d’apprendre à communiquer dans la langue étudiée.
De nombreux linguistes s’accordent aujourd’hui à dire que l’apprentissage d’une langue étrangère se développe d’autant plus facilement que le contact avec cette langue est précoce.
En effet, comme le souligne Claude Hagège dans L’enfant aux deux langues1, jusqu’à l’âge de dix ans, les enfants ont l’oreille ouverte à tous les sons. Jusqu’à cet âge, l’enfant possède potentiellement un grand pouvoir d’intégration des sons et des phonèmes de toutes les langues.
Il faut être naïf ou ignorant pour ne voir dans une langue vivante qu’un outil de communication, comme le sont les langues artificielles. Au-delà des barrières sociales, et comme le démontrent d’innombrables travaux de neurophysiologistes et de psychologues, elle ne se réduit pas à un simple code pour l’échange d’informations, mais elle constitue le creuset même de l’identité de chacun. Comme a pu l’écrire Régis Debray, « elle n’est pas un instrument, mais un milieu de vie, le fil d’or d’une vitalité longue et singulière»2.
La didactique des langues est l’ensemble des méthodes, hypothèses et principes pédagogiques, qui permettent aux enseignants, formateurs, auteurs d’outils d’apprentissages – notamment de manuels et logiciels – d’optimiser les processus d’enseignement/apprentissage des langues étrangères.
Les méthodologies d’apprentissage sont des phénomènes relativement nouveaux dans le domaine de la didactique des langues. La méthodologie traditionnelle est apparue au début du XXe siècle, formant une base dans l’enseignement des langues secondes et étrangère.
Peu après, la méthodologie directe met de côté l’idéologie de la méthodologie traditionnelle pour plonger l’apprenant dans la langue cible. Par la suite, au début de la Deuxième Guerre mondiale, la méthodologie audio-orale remplace peu à peu la méthodologie directe pour faire place à l’apprentissage rapide d’une langue cible afin qu’ils puissent communiquer rapidement dans les autres langues. Cela dure jusqu’aux années 1970.
La méthodologie structure-globule audiovisuelle prend sa place, une méthodologie qui ressemble beaucoup au style d’apprentissage dans les programmes de langues secondes et d’immersion dans les écoles aujourd’hui. Finalement, l’approche communicative est aujourd’hui acceptée comme la méthodologie de référence dans les cours de langue seconde.
On peut dire que les objectifs d’apprentissage d’une langue étrangère ont énormément varié depuis la méthodologie traditionnelle. Au XIXème siècle, l’objectif culturel était prioritaire; en effet, on étudiait une langue étrangère par et pour sa littérature, ses proverbes, sa culture en général. Ces connaissances accordaient une catégorie sociale et intellectuelle supérieures et distinguaient tout particulièrement l’apprenant de langue étrangère.
Par contre, dès 1950, on a préféré l’objectif pratique qui privilégiait un enseignement de la langue considérée comme un outil de communication destiné à engager efficacement une conversation avec des personnes parlant une autre langue.
Alors que dans les années 1960 l’enseignement des langues en milieu scolaire étaient à son apogée, dans les années 1980 on peut dire qu’il stagne. Parallèlement à cette situation, on étudie de plus en plus les spécificités de l’enseignement des langues étrangères aux adultes.
L’apprenant occupe alors une place de choix dans le processus de formation qui privilégie à présent l’analyse des publics et de leurs besoins pour déterminer des objectifs et des itinéraires d’apprentissage spécifiques.
Depuis le XIXème siècle et jusqu’à présent, les différentes méthodologies se sont succédé, les unes en rupture avec la méthodologie précédente, les autres comme une adaptation de celle-ci aux nouveaux besoins de la société.
Cependant on ne peut pas définir d’une manière précise la succession chronologique des méthodologies, étant donné que certaines d’entre elles ont cohabité avant de s’imposer à la précédente.
Dans le cadre de l’enseignement du français langue étrangère (FLE), on constate toute une évolution méthodologique, de la méthode grammaire-traduction aux méthodes directes (audio-linguale, audio-visuelle) et approche communicative. La méthode communicative est la méthode de FLE la plus moderne.
Dans l’approche communicative qui est une des principales méthodologies de la didactique des langues, et qui est basée sur le principe de la compétence de communication, l’apprenant prend charge de son apprentissage, et tout enseignement se rapporte à la façon avec laquelle l’apprenant apprend.
Les limites de l’approche communicative sont encore mal définies. Les besoins de l’apprenant sont pris en considération en fonction de ses objectifs. La langue est vue avant tout comme un instrument d’interaction sociale.
Les tenants de l’approche communicative se basent sur la psychologie cognitiviste marquée par la linguistique chomskyenne et l’apprentissage d’une langue seconde est vu comme un processus beaucoup plus créateur et soumis plus à des mécanismes internes qu’à des influences externes.
Consciente de l’intérêt de cet enseignement précoce pour le développement de nombreuses compétences, nous avons voulu porter notre réflexion sur ce qu’il en était en matière de communication et en quoi l’ensemble de ces compétences pouvait favoriser la capacité à communiquer en langue étrangère.
L’approche communicative aide à l’acquisition de la langue française en cours de français langue étrangère (FLE). Ce qui a inspiré la réalisation de ce mémoire est la motivation de la plupart des élèves apprenant une langue étrangère.
Ils veulent pouvoir communiquer avec d’autres francophones. Le but est donc de voir si le FLE peut être appris grâce à une approche communicative et, si possible, pouvoir parler d’acquisition du français. Le FLE étant une matière scolaire, il est difficile d’avoir une influence naturelle ou sociale.
Ministry of Sciences, Researches and Technology
Rudaki Higher Education Institute of Tonekabon
( Non governmental – Non profit )
Department of English Language
A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of M.A. in Teaching English as a Foreign Language
Title:
A Study on the Effectiveness of Textual Modification on the Improvement of Iranian upper-Intermediate EFL Learners’ Reading Comprehension
Supervisor:
Dr. Shahrokh Jahandar
Advisor:
Dr. Morteza Khodabandelu
January 2015
(در فایل دانلودی نام نویسنده موجود است)
تکه هایی از متن پایان نامه به عنوان نمونه :
(ممکن است هنگام انتقال از فایل اصلی به داخل سایت بعضی متون به هم بریزد یا بعضی نمادها و اشکال درج نشود ولی در فایل دانلودی همه چیز مرتب و کامل است)
Abstract
This study was conducted to investigate the impact of textual Modification on Iranian upper-Intermediate EFL Learners’ Reading Comprehension ability. For this purpose, 115 male and female university students majoring in English Translation participated in this study. Having being homogenized by an MELAB test, 60 learners were selected and they were randomly assigned into two groups, control and experimental. Then both groups sat for a pre-test, which was a reading comprehension test. The purpose of this test was to measure the learners’ initial subject knowledge of reading comprehension ability. Afterwards, the experimental group received treatment based on textual Modification strategy. However, the control group received no treatment. The treatment procedure took 10 sessions. Finally at the end of the course both groups sat for the post test of reading comprehension. Then the statistical analysis was run through ANCOVA. It was explored from the study that learners’ reading ability improves more when they are provided with textual Modification strategy.
Key words: textual Modification, Reading comprehension
Table of Contents
Title Page
Chapter 1: Introduction
Chapter 2: Review of the Related Literature
2.6.2) Interpretive Complexity…………………………………………………………………………..29
Chapter 3: Methodology
Chapter 4: Results
Chapter 5: Discussion and Implication
Appendices
Appendix C: Treatment procedure for experimental group (syntactically simplified text) …84
List of Tables
Title Page
Chapter One
Introduction
-
Introduction
Textual modification can be defined as any process that reduces the syntactic or lexical complexity of a text while attempting to preserve its meaning and information content.
The aim of Textual modification is to make text easier to comprehend for a human user or process by a program.
A common method for assessing whether a text is suitable for a particular reading age is by means of using readability metric, such as the Flesch readability score, proposed in 1943 and more recently popularized by Microsoft Word. These metrics are based solely on surface attributes of a text, such as average sentence and word lengths.
The term readability is therefore a misnomer; these metrics do not attempt to judge how readable, well written or cohesive a text is, or even whether it is grammatical. Rather, they suggest what reading age a text (that is assumed to be well written, cohesive and relevant in content) is suitable for, by means of a calibration with school reading grades.
- Theoretical Framework
Compared to controlled generation and text summarization, there has been significantly less work done on the automatic textual modification of existing text. Interestingly, the two main groups involved with textual Modification have had very different motivations. The group at UPenn (Chandrasekar et al., 1996; Chandrasekar and Srinivas, 1997) viewed text simplification as a preprocessing tool to improve the performance of their parser. The PSET project on the other hand focused its research on simplifying newspaper text for aphasics (Carroll et al., 1998;
Carroll et al., 1999b).
Chandrasekar et al.’s motivation for textual modification was largely to reduce sentence length as a preprocessing step for a parser. They treated textual modification as a two-stage process— analysis followed by transformation. Their research focused on dis-embedding relative clauses and appositives and separating out coordinated clauses.
Their first approach (Chandrasekar et al., 1996) was to hand-craft simplification rules, the example from their paper being: V W:NP, X:REL PRON Y, Z. −→ V W Z. W Y. which can be read as “if a sentence consists of any text V followed by a noun phrase W, a relative pronoun X and a sequence of words Y enclosed in commas and a sequence of words Z, then the embedded clause can be made into a new sentence with W as the subject noun phrase”. This rule can, for example, be used to perform the following modification:
John, who was the CEO of a company, played golf.
John played golf. John was the CEO of a company.
In practice, linear pattern-matching rules like the handcrafted one above do not work very well. For example, to simplify:
A friend from London, who was the CEO of a company, played golf, usually on Sundays. it is necessary to decide whether the relative clause attaches to friend or London and whether the clause ends at company or golf. And if a parser is used to resolve these ambiguities (as in their second approach summarized below), the intended use of text simplification as a preprocessor to a parser is harder to justify.
Their second approach (Chandrasekar and Srinivas, 1997) was to have the program learn simplification rules from an aligned corpus of sentences and their hand-simplified forms. The original and simplified sentences were parsed using a Lightweight Dependency Analyser (LDA) (Srinivas, 1997) that acted on the output of a super tagger (Joshi and Srinivas, 1994). These parses were chunked into phrases. Simplification rules were induced from a comparison of the structures of the chunked parses of the original and hand simplified text. The learning algorithm worked by flattening sub trees that were the same on both sides of the rule, replacing identical strings of words with variables and then computing tree→trees transformations to obtain rules in terms of these variables.
This approach involved the manual simplification of a reasonable quantity of text. The authors justified this approach on the basis that handcrafting rules is time consuming.
However, it is likely that the intuitions used to manually simplify sentences can be encodable in rules without too much time overhead. In addition, while this approach is interesting from the machine-learning point of view, it seems unlikely that a system that learns from a corpus that has been simplified by hand will outperform a system in which the rules themselves have been hand-crafted.
Textual modification can increase the throughput of a parser only if it reduces the syntactic ambiguity in the text. Hence, a Textual modification system has to be able to make disambiguation decisions without a parser in order to be of use to parsing. This early work on Textual modification therefore raised more issues than it addressed. Moreover, since the authors did not provide any evaluations, it is difficult to assess how well their approaches to text simplification worked.
The PSET project (Devlin and Tait, 1998; Carroll et al., 1998), in contrast, was aimed at people with aphasia rather than at parsers and was more justified in making use of a parser for the analysis stage. For syntactic simplification, the PSET project roughly followed the approach of Chandrasekar et al. PSET used a probabilistic LR parser (Briscoe and Carroll, 1995) for the analysis stage and unification-based pattern matching of handcrafted rules over phrase-marker trees for the transformation stage. The project reports that on 100 news articles, the parser returned 81% full parses, 15% parse fragments and 4% parse failures.
An example of the kind of simplification rule used in the textual modification component of the PSET project is:
(S (?a) (S (?b) (S (?c) ) ) ) −→ (?a) (?c)
The left hand side of this rule unifies with structures of the form shown in figure 1.1 and the rule simply discards the conjunction (?b) and makes new sentences out of (?a) and (?c). This rule can be used, for example, to perform the following modification:
The proceedings are unfair and any punishment from the guild would be unjustified. The proceedings are unfair. Any punishment from the guild would be unjustified. The PSET project explored a wide range of simplification options, including lexical simplification, conversion of passives to actives and resolving pronouns. Lexical simplification involves replacing difficult words with simpler synonyms. The PSET project used Word Net (Miller et al., 1993) to identify synonyms and obtained word frequency statistics from the Oxford Psycholinguistic Database (Quinlan, 1992) to determine the relative difficulty of words (Devlin and Tait, 1998).
The syntactic component of PSET comprised three components— anaphora resolution, syntactic simplification and anaphora replacement. The anaphora resolution algorithm was based on CogNIAC (Baldwin, 1997) and Canning et al. (2000b) report a recall of 60% with precision of 84% on newspaper text.
The syntactic constructs that the PSET project simplified were coordinated clauses and passive voice. Canning (2002) reports that there were only 75 instances of coordination in her corpus of 100 news reports from the Sunderland Echo. This meant that the level of simplification achieved was unlikely to be useful. As I describe in this thesis, a treatment of relative clauses, subordination and apposition can result in a higher level of simplification.
The attempt at converting passive voice to active had mixed success. Canning (2002) reports that only one out five passive constructs had an expressed surface agent. The rest were agent less; for example, in she was taken to Sunderland Royal Hospital. Further, passive constructs were often deeply embedded within a sentence, making the agent difficult to recover.
Canning (2002) reports that in her 100 news report corpus, there were only 33 agentive passive constructs. Out of these, her program converted only 55% correctly to active voice. Even the correctly converted sentences sometimes seemed odd; for example:
He was struck down by the brain disease last October.
The brain disease last October struck him down.
The main contribution of the syntactic component of PSET was the application of a pronoun resolution algorithm to text simplification (Canning, 2002). The aim was to replace pronouns with their antecedent noun phrases, to help aphasics who might otherwise have difficulty in resolving them. Intra-sentential anaphora were not replaced, to avoid producing sentences like Mr Smith said Mr Smith was unhappy.
Canning (2002) conducted an evaluation of the effect of pronoun replacement on comprehension on 16 aphasic subjects and reported 20% faster reading times and 7% better scores on question answering tests when pronouns were replaced.
