با پیشرفت سریع فناوری و ظهور نسل جدیدی از بسته های نرم افزاری رایانه ای، بررسی بیشتر این مقوله در حوزه ی یادگیری و تدریس زبان انگلیسی منطقی به نظر می رسد. بدین منظور، پژوهش حاضر به ارزیابی دیدگاه زبان آموزان نسبت به برنامه ای خودخوان با بهره گرفتن از دو نرم افزار آموزش زبان به نام های رزتا استون (Rosetta Stone) و تل می مور (Tell Me More) پرداخت. شصت شرکت کننده در سطح مقدماتی زبان انگلیسی به طور تصادفی از یک دبیرستان غیر دولتی انتخاب شدند. سپس شرکت کنندگان به دو گروه تقسیم شدند و هر کدام با یکی از بسته های نرم افزاری که پیش تر ذکر شد به یادگیری زبان انگلیسی پرداختند. آنها طی یک دوره ی سه هفته ای از نرم افزارها استفاده کردند. پس از آن، از آنها خواسته شد تا پرسشنامه ای را که به صورت لیکرت تنظیم شده، در مورد تجربه یادگیری شان تکمیل نمایند. این پرسشنامه ی بیست و هفت آیتمی دیدگاه شرکت کنندگان را نسبت به این نوع برنامه ی خودخوان نشان می داد. اطلاعات جمع آوری شده بر اساس آمار توصیفی و استنباطی تحلیل شد. بر اساس آمار توصیفی، یافته ها نشان داد که دیدگاه شرکت کنندگان نسبت به هر کدام از گزینه ها متفاوت بوده با این حال برای اکثر گزینه ها از جمله تمایل زبان آموزان نسبت به یک برنامه ی خودخوان، دیدگاه شان نسبت به ویژگی گرافیک بسته ها ی نرم افزاری، سیستم تشخیص صدا، سهولت استفاده از نظر مهارت های پایه ای و غیره دیدگاه مثبتی نسبت به هر کدام از بسته های نرم افزاری داشتند. به علاوه، آزمون من ویتنی یو (Mann Whitney U  ) نشان داد که از لحاظ آماری، تفاوت آماری معناداری بین زبان آموزان از نظر دیدگاه شان نسبت به بسته های نرم افزاری آموزش زبان وجود ندارد.  

 

 

کلید واژه ها: یادگیری زبان به کمک کامپیوتر، دیدگاه زبان آموزان، بسته های نرم افزاری، انگلیسی به عنوان یک زبان بیگانه

 

Table of Content

 

 

 

Title                                                                                                                                 Page                  

 

 

 

Abstract………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 1

 

Chapter 1: Introduction 

 

1.0: Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 2

 

1.0.1: Software packages to be investigated in the present study………………………………….. 4

 

1.1: Theoretical Framework………………………………………………………………………………………….. 5

 

1.2: Statement of the Problem………………………………………………………………………………………. 6

 

1.3: Significance of the Study………………………………………………………………………………………. 7

 

1.3.1. Merits of the integration of technology in English language education………………. 8

 

1.3.2. Drawbacks of the integration of technology in English language education……….. 9

 

1.4: Research Questions……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 9

 

1.5: Research Hypotheses…………………………………………………………………………………………… 10

 

1.6: Definitions of Key Terms…………………………………………………………………………………….. 10

 

1.7: Summary……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 10

 

Chapter 2: Review of the Literature

 

2.0. Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 11

 

2.1. Autonomy and Self-study Programs…………………………………………………………………….. 11

 

2.2. Language Training Software Packages…………………………………………………………………. 12

 

2.3. Assessing Attitude, Belief, Perception and Motivation in CALL………………………….. 13

 

2.4. Online vs. Traditional Way of Language Learning………………………………………………. 23

 

2.5. Barriers to the Integration of CALL……………………………………………………………………… 25

 

2.6. Summary……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 26

 

Chapter 3: Methodology

 

3.0. Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 27

 

3.1. The Design of the Study………………………………………………………………………………………. 27

 

3.2. Participants………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 28

 

3.3. Materials and Instruments……………………………………………………………………………………. 28

 

3.3.1. Placement Test………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 28

 

3.3.2. Questionnaire……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 29

 

3.3.3. Software Packages…………………………………………………………………………………………….. 29

 

3.4. Procedure…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 31

 

3.5. Methods of Analyzing the Data……………………………………………………………………………. 32

 

3.6. Summary……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 33

 

Chapter 4: Results

 

4.0. Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 34

 

4.1. The Results of the Reliability Analyses of the OPT test and Attitude Questionnaire (Pilot Study)…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 35

 

4.2. The Results of OPT Test for the Sampling Purpose………………………………………………. 36

 

4.3. Descriptive Statistics for the Items of the Attitude Questionnaire……………………….. 38

 

4.4. Inferential Statistics for the Attitude Questionnaire…………………………………………….. 57

 

4.5. Summary……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 60

 

Chapter 5: Discussion

 

5.0. Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 61

 

5.1. General Discussion……………………………………………………………………………………………… 61

 

5.2. Implications of the Study…………………………………………………………………………………….. 68

 

5.3. Limitations of the Study………………………………………………………………………………………. 68

 

5.4. Suggestions for further Research…………………………………………………………………………. 69

 

5.5. Summary……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 69

 

 

 

References………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 70

 

Appendices………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 80

 

 

 

List of Tables

 

Table                                                                                                                              Pages                                                                                               

 

Table 4.1: Reliability Statistics for the OPT test…………………………………………………………. 35

 

Table 4.2: Suggested Standards (Adopted From Barker, Pistrang, and Elliott, 1994…… 36

 

Table 4.3: Statistics For the OPT Test…………………………………………………………………………. 37

 

Table 4.4: Item Statistics for the for the Attitude Questionnaire…………………………………. 38

 

Table 4.5: Item 1: Learning A Language Using Computer Software Was An Interesting Experience…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 41

 

Table 4.6: Item 2: Language learning May be Important to My Goals, But I Do not Expect It to be Much Fun…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 41

 

Table 4.7: Item 3: It Is Easier to Learn A Language at Home without Classroom Pressure  42

 

Table 4.8: Item 4: I Worry a Lot About Making Mistakes in Classroom……………………… 43

 

Table 4.9: Item 5:I Think Working at Home; Using Rosetta StoneTell me more Is More of a Computer Game than a Serious Instruction…………………………………………………………………………………. 43

 

Table 4.10: Item 6: I have found that classroom attendance is not the only way to learn a language…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 44

 

Table 4.11: Item 7: I would like to learn English, provided I allocate flexible time per week        45

 

Table 4.12: Item 8: I Will Recommend Rosetta Stone/TELL ME MORE to My Friends.      45

 

Table 4.13: Item: 9 I would like to learn English through videos, photos, and graphics not just studying textbooks……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 46

 

Table 4.14: Item 10: Learning with Computers Offers More Advantages over Traditional Methods of Language Education…………………………………………………………………………………………………… 46

 

Table 4.15: Item 11: Computers Are Useful for Language Learning…………………………… 47

 

Table 4.16:Item 12: I Have No Difficulty in Operating the Basic Functions of Computers as far as Language-Learning Software Is Concerned………………………………………………………………… 47

 

Table 4.17: Item 13: Computers Have Proved to be Effective Learning Tools Worldwide 48

 

Table 4.18: Item 14: Students Prefer Learning from Teachers to Learning from Computers          49

 

Table 4.19: Item 15: I Think I Could Spend More Time Practicing Skills (Listening, Speaking, Reading and Writing) Using Rosetta StoneTell me more…………………………………………………………. 49

 

Table 4.20: Item 16: I Prefer to Learn English through Rosetta StoneTell me more Because I Can Adjust My Own Speed of Learning…………………………………………………………………………….. 50

 

Table 4.21: Item 17: I Would Rather Take A Formal Course Than A Self-Study Program  51

 

Table 4.22: Item 18: Rosetta Stone/Tell me more Is So User-Friendly. It Is Quite Convenient for Me as an Ordinary Computer User……………………………………………………………………………………. 51

 

Table 4.23: Item 19: I Enjoyed the Lessons of Rosetta StoneTell Me More……………….. 52

 

Table 4.24: Item 20: I Think Speech Recognition System in Rosetta StoneTELL ME MORE Can Help You Sound Like a Native Speaker………………………………………………………………………………. 53

 

Table 4.25: Item 21: It Gradually Becomes Boring Working with Rosetta StoneTell me more     53

 

Table 4.26: Item 22: It Is Important to Practice Prefabricated Conversation but There Is Not Such a Thing in Rosetta StoneTell me more………………………………………………………………………….. 54

 

Table 4.27: Item 23: The Speech Recognition System In Rosetta StoneTell me more Is Very Complicated. I Cannot Adjust My Tone to That of the Native Speaker’s……………………. 54

 

Table 4.28: Item 24: It Is a Good Idea to Use Rosetta StoneTell me more but not as the Main Source of Education……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 55

 

Table 4.29: Item 25: Diverse and Colorful Photos Used in Rosetta StoneTell me more Have Enormous Appeal………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 56

 

Table 4.30: Item 26: If I Cannot Pursue a Formal Course In English, Anyway I Prefer to Use Rosetta StoneTell me more…………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 56

 

Table 4.31: Item 27: I Cannot Imagine How Exciting It Was to Practice at Home Using Rosetta StoneTell me more…………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 57

 

Table 4.32: Ranks of group (A) and (B) for their Attitudes………………………………………… 58

 

Table 4.33: Mann Whitney U Test for EFL learners’ Attitudes towards the Packages…. 58

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

List of Figures

 

Figure                                                                                                                             Page

 

Figure 4.1 the Comparison between Groups (A) And (B) With Respect To Their Attitudes towards the Two Language Learning Packages (“Tell Me More” and “Rosetta Stone”)………………….. 58

 

 

 

 

Abstract                                

 

With the rapid advancement of technology and the outbreak of the new generation of computer software packages, it seems plausible to shed more light on this issue in the realm of English language learning and teaching. To this end, the present study aimed at scrutinizing the EFL learners’ attitude towards a self-study program using two language training software packages called Rosetta Stone and Tell Me More. Sixty elementary EFL participants were selected randomly from a non-state high school. Then they were divided into two groups each learning English through one of the previously-mentioned packages. They passed a self-study three-week using the two software packages. After that, they were required to fill up a Likert-type questionnaire based on their learning experience. The twenty-seven-item questionnaire elicited participants’ attitudes towards this sort of self-study program. The collected data were analyzed using both descriptive and inferential statistics. Based on the descriptive statistics, the findings revealed that the attitudes of the participants towards each item were different, although for most items such as learners’ preference towards a self-study program, their ideas about the software packages graphics, the speech recognition system, the ease of use in terms of individuals’ basic skills etc. they reflected positive views towards the use of each of the software packages. In addition, the result of Mann-Whitney U test showed that there was not a statistically significant difference between elementary EFL learners in terms of their attitudes towards the two language learning software packages.

 

 

 

 

 

Key Words: Computer-assisted Language Learning (CALL), Learners’ Attitude, Software Packages, English as a Foreign Language (EFL)

 

 

 

Chapter One

 

Introduction

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1.0. Introduction

 

With the beginning of the era of technology and a whole raft of new language training software packages, it seems quite sensible to take a closer look at some of these attempts to enhance the quality and effectiveness of language learning and teaching. This is quite a fact that the advent of computer and following it the Internet has made the process of language learning easier, more convenient and even more enjoyable. In other words, technology has revolutionized diverse aspects of human life and as such language learning and teaching is no exception. The inclination towards the use of computer and multimedia facilities in the past two decades in the language education has been reported in the works of some researchers such as Salaberry (2001). The form of technology that is taken into consideration in the current study is the language training software packages.

 

Figura and Jarvis (2007) defined CALL as learners’ learning language in any context with, through, and around computer technologies. Egbert (http://www.iatefl.org.pl/call/j_key24.htm) (n.d.) also stated that CALL is the catalyst for new kinds of teaching and learning that enables learners to achieve their goals faster. It can be said that one of the final goals of CALL is to develop thinking skills in learners out of class environment. Apparently, CALL materials seem to be more appealing and promising owing to their capacity to integrate text, picture, sound, and animation. However, what makes a widespread research in this area arduous appears to be the difficulty in locating the learners using CALL materials.

 

It can be estimated that the use of computers as an asset to language learning and teaching commenced in the 1960s. As technology is subject to changes almost all the time, the definition of Beatty (2003) of CALL (computer-assisted language learning) that “any process in which a learner uses a computer and, as a result, improves his or her language” (p. 7) truly fits its nature. The field of CALL emerged in three various stages during its protracted history, Structural or Behavioristic CALL (1970s-1980), Communicative CALL (1980s-1990), and Integrative CALL (from late 20th up to 21st century).

 

As the first stage, behavioristic CALL was adopted as the part of the general field of computer-assisted instruction. As its name indicates, it was inspired by the behavioristic psychology clarifying repetitive language drills so called drill-and-practice (or drill-and-kill). The role of the computer was seen as a mechanical tutor that provided the opportunity to work at individuals’ own speed without getting tired. At that time a tutorial system called PLATO could mesmerize attentions with a central computer and terminals and featured extensive drills, grammatical explanations, and translation tests at various intervals (Ahmad, Corbett, Rogers, & Sussex, 1985).

 

The second stage, communicative CALL, came into existence at the time when behavioristic CALL was being rebuffed at both theoretical and empirical levels. It also synchronized the outbreak of PCs (personal computers) which proved to be more capable as far as individual work was concerned. Advocates of communicative CALL believed that computer-based activities should emphasize using forms in lieu of the forms themselves, teaching grammar implicitly rather than explicitly, encouraging and having learners produce authentic instead of prefabricated language, and using the language predominantly (Jones & Fortescue, 1987). Communicative CALL was pertinent to the cognitive theories maintaining learning as a process of discovery, expression, and development. Text reconstruction programs with the aim of discovering the patterns of language and meaning through unscrambling words and texts in the form of individual or group works as well as the simulation programs with simulated discussion and conversation allowing students to work in pairs or groups were on full swing. The dominant focus of most advocates of communicative CALL was the students’ interaction with each other while working with the computer.

 

Although the second stage of CALL seemed a greater success in comparison with the first, it was open to criticism. Critics slammed communicative CALL stating that computer is still being used in an ad hoc and disconnected fashion as a result; it “finds itself making a greater contribution to marginal rather than central elements” of language learning process (Kenning & Kenning, 1990, p. 90). It paved the path to adaptation of communicative language teaching theory in both theory and practice. Cognitive view of communicative language learning was leaving its place to a more socio-cognitive perspective that emphasized more language use in authentic social contexts. Approaches like task-based and content-based used to integrate learners into authentic language situations and also different language skills. As a result, the third stage of technology and language learning called Integrative CALL emerged. As stated before, this stage sought to integrate language skills (listening, speaking, reading, and writing) and also technology to language learning process. Simply put, students are exposed to technological assets as a constant process rather than isolated exercises every now and then.

:

 

تحقیق حاضر دو ترجمه انگلیسی از تلمیحات موجود در منطق الطیر عطار را که در سالهای 1954و 1984بوسیله نات،دربندی ودیویس صورت گرفته اند را مورد بررسی قرار داده است.این تحقیق،استراتژیهای ارائه شده توسط لپیهالم 1997را که مترجمین حاضر جهت انتقال معنا از زبان فارسی به زبان انگلیسی بکاربرده اند را نیزمورد بررسی قرارداده و با هم مقایسه نموده است. نتایج نشان داده اند که هردو مترجم در ترجمه این تلمیحات از منطق الطیر،ازاستراتژی های مختلفی استفاده کرده اند که پرکاربردترین آنها عبارتندازترجمه استاندارد،تغییر جزیی،حذف،جایگزینی،كاهش،تولیددوباره وشناخت سطحی.بیشترین استراتژیهایی كه توسط مترجمان بكار گرفته شده اند ترجمه استاندارد،تغییرجزیی،و حذف هستند.استراتژیهای مورد نظر به مباحث معناشناسی، فرهنگی، بافت معنایی و ترجمه تحت الفظی تلمیحات مذکور مربوط می شوند.همچنین محقق دریافت که در ترجمه های مذکوراستراتژی استفاده از زیرنویس کمتر بکار برده شده است و با مقایسه این دو ترجمه از تلمیحات کدام ترجمه ازترجمه دیگری استاندارد تراست.ترجمه دربندی و دیویس تاحدی تحت الفظی تر از ترجمه ایست که توسط نات صورتگرفته است.لذا،عوامل دیگری چون آشنایی مترجمین با مسایلی همچون فرهنگ اسلامی،آیات و احادیث وایده  خود مترجم در انتخاب استراتژی آنها نیز ایفای نقش کرده اند.یافته های تحقیق حاضر بر این فرض است که تلمیحات و ترجمه بینامتنیت، مقولات پیچیده ای هستند که در این تحقیق تنها نات توانسته است بطور موفق معنای مورد نظرمتن شعری اصیل در منطق الطیررا به خواننده زبان مبدا انتقال دهد

 

Table of Contents

 

Title                                                                                                                                      Page

 

Title Page

 

Approval page ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….  II

 

Table of Contents …………………………………………………………………………………………………. III

 

Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………………………………………. VI

 

Abstract ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. IX

 

List of Abbreviations  …………………………………………………………………………………………….. X

 

Chapter One: Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………. 1

 

1.1. Overview  ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 2

 

1.2. Intertextuality and Allusion……………………………………………………………………………….. 2

 

1.3. Statement of the Problem………………………………………………………………………………….. 4

 

1.4. Significance of the Study ………………………………………………………………………………….. 4

 

1.5. Research Questions …………………………………………………………………………………………… 5

 

1.6. Definition of Key Terms……………………………………………………………………………………. 5

 

Chapter Two: Literature Review…………………………………………………………………………… 7

 

2.1. Overview ………………………………………………………………………………………………………..  8

 

2.2. History of Intertextuality…………………………………………………………………………………… 8

 

2.3. Types of Intertextuality…………………………………………………………………………………… 11

 

2.3.1.Horizontal or Vertical Reference…………………………………………………………………….. 11

 

2.3.2. Manifest or constitutive Reference    …………………………………………………………….    12

 

2.3.3. Active versus passive Intertextuality………………………………………………………………. 12

 

2.4. Scope of Intertextuality…………………………………………………………………………………… 12

 

2.5. Poetry……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 12

 

2.6. Forms of Intertextuality…………………………………………………………………………………… 13

 

2. 7. Allusion ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 14

 

2. 7.1.Functions of Allusion…………………………………………………………………………………… 15

2.7.2. Forms of Allusion ………………………………………………………………………………………… 15

 

2.7.3. Types of Allusion …………………………………………………………………………………………. 16

 

2.7.3.1. Religious Allusion……………………………………………………………………………………… 16

 

2.7.3.2. Literary Allusion ……………………………………………………………………………………….. 17

 

2.7.3.3. Mythological Allusion……………………………………………………………………………….. 18

 

2.7.3.4. Historical Allusion…………………………………………………………………………………….. 18

 

2.7.3.5. Proper-Name Allusion……………………………………………………………………………….. 19

 

2.7.3.6. Key-Phrase Allusion ………………………………………………………………………………….. 20

 

2.7.4. Potential Strategies for translating Allusion …………………………………………………….. 20

 

2.7.5. Complication of translating Allusive Texts ……………………………………………………… 27

 

2.8. Poetry Translation…………………………………………………………………………………………… 28

 

2.8.1. Possibility of Poetry Translation …………………………………………………………………….. 28

 

2.8.2. Types of Poetry Translation…………………………………………………………………………… 31

 

2.8.3. Methods of translating poetry……………………………………………………………………….. 34

 

2.8.4. Linguistic Problems……………………………………………………………………………………… 35

 

2.8.5. Literary or aesthetic Problems……………………………………………………………………….. 35

 

2.8.6. Poetic Structure…………………………………………………………………………………………… 35

 

2.8.7. Socio-cultural problems ………………………………………………………………………………… 35

 

Chapter three: Methodology………………………………………………………………………………… 36

 

3.1. Overview……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 37

 

3.2. Restatement of the research questions  ………………………………………………………………. 37

 

3.3. Materials ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 38

 

3.3.1. Mantiq ut-Tair……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 38

 

3.3.2. Nott’s Translation………………………………………………………………………………………….. 38

 

3.3.3. Darbandi’s and Davis’ Translation ………………………………………………………………….. 39

 

3.4. Procedures …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 39

 

Chapter Four: Data Analysis and Results …………………………………………………………….. 40

 

4.1. Overview ………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 41

 

4.2. Analysis of the Data……………………………………………………………………………………….. 41

 

4.2.1. Key-phrase Allusions in Attar’s Mantiq ut-Tair………………………………………………….. 41

 

4.3. Results ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 69

 

Chapter Five: Discussion and Conclusions ……………………………………………………………. 74

 

5.1. Overview………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 75

 

5.2. Strategies Used for Key-phrases Allusion  …………………………………………………………. 76

 

5.3. Concluding Remarks ………………………………………………………………………………………. 76

 

5.4. Limitations of the Study ………………………………………………………………………………….. 77

 

5.5. Implications of the Study ………………………………………………………………………………… 77

 

5.6. Suggestions for Further Research……………………………………………………………………… 77

 

References …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 78

 

Appendix……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 84

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Acknowledgements

 

I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my supervisor, Dr.  H. Vahid Dastjerdi for his guidance, advice and constructive comments on the topic in question and providing advice and guidance throughout the research period.

 

My special thanks also go to Dr. M. R. Talebinejad for his advice, help and encouragement. And also I am grateful to my brother, Saadi, M.A. English teaching from University of Tehran.

 

Finally and most importantly, I thank my God for granting me health and fitness and inspiring me hope and encouragement to accomplish this work.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

List of Tables

 

Table 1   ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 68

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

List of Figures

 

Figure 2.1……………………………………………………………………………………………… 22

 

Figure 2.2……………………………………………………………………………………………… 23

 

Figure 4.3……………………………………………………………………………………………… 69

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Abstract

 

The present study focused on two English translations of KP allusions in Attar’s
Mantiq ut-Tair. Attar’s Mantiq ut-Tair which has been translated by Nott (1954), Darbandi and Davis (1984) was used in the study. It also considered the strategies by Leppihalme (1997, p. 96) which two translators utilized when doing the job in order to transfer the meaning of the ST into TT. The present study compared two English translations of Mantiq ut-Tair with each other to find out what translation strategies have the translators used to convey the intertextual allusive items to the TT and to what extent the true sense of KP allusion in Mantiq ut Tair has been transferred to English. The results showed that when dealing with KP allusions present in the ST which are absent from the TL, translators often resort to different strategies ranging from standard translation, minimum change, omission, replacement, reduction, recreation to the simulated familiarity strategies. The most frequently used strategies by the translators were standard translation, minimum change and omission. These strategies contribute to semantic, cultural, contextual, and literal translation of allusions. The researcher also found that the translations were subject to almost all different strategies except use of footnotes strategy. This thesis also made a comparison between the first translation and the second one to find out which one is more standard than the other with respect to the translation of intertextual references. The second translation of Mantiq ut- Tair by Darbandi and Davis to some extent was more literal than the first translation by Nott. Therefore, other factors such as familiarity with Islamic culture, verses, traditions and the translators’ ideas for which the translations are carried out are needed to explain the translator’s choice of different strategies. The findings of the study suggested that due to the fact that KP allusions and intertextuality are more complicated issues, only Nott could successfully transfer the intended meaning of the original poetry text in Mantiq ut-Tair to TL reader.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

List of Abbreviations

 

KP=Key-phrase

 

PN=Proper noun

 

SL= Source language

 

ST=Source text

 

TL=Target Language

 

TT=Target text

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CHAPTER ONE

 

 

 

INTRODUCTION

 

 

 

 

 

• Overview

     The concept of intertextuality was first introduced by Julia Kristeva in an essay entitled “Word, Dialogue and Novel”, in 1966, to describe the way all language and all literature are constructed from previous utterances to form mosaics of quotations (Kristeva, 1986, p. 37). “Intertextuality concerns the factors which make the utilization of one text dependent upon knowledge of one or more previously encountered texts (Beaugrande & Dressler, 1981, p. 10).” In other words, Hatim (1997) also argued intertextuality is one of the basic forms of relations that are presence of one text in another one – a quote would be the most obvious example (p. 29).

 

    Meanwhile, Fairclough (1992) noted that intertextuality points to how texts can transform prior texts and restructure existing conventions (genres, discourses) to generate new ones (p. 270). “A text is no longer considered as the container of meaning, but as an intertextual space in which a number of elements are combined, absorbed or transformed (Cascallana, 2006, p. 98).” However, Schäffner & Holmes (1995, p. 58) argued that the influences of intertextuality and the relationship between text and context predispose a target audience to associate specific content with text presented through a given medium.

 

     According to Lefevere (1992), translating poetry can be considered different from translating other text types, in the sense that one translating poetry is not engaged in a single level to deal with but a fourfold process including: language, ideology, poetics and universe of discourse at each of which particular problems arise to involve him with (p. 88).

متن کامل پایان نامه مقطع کارشناسی ارشد رشته :زبان انگلیسی

 

 

 

عنوان : پایان نامه رشته زبان انگلیسی : Analysis of Narrative in Trout Fishing in America and In Watermelon Sugarby Richard Brautigan

 

 

 

ISLAMIC AZAD UNIVERSITY

 

Central Tehran Branch

 

Faculty of Foreign Languages-Department of English

 

“M.A” Thesis

 

on English Literature

 

 

 

Subject:

 

Analysis of Narrative in Trout Fishing in America and In Watermelon Sugarby Richard Brautigan

 

 

 

Advisor:

 

Dr. Jalal Sokhanvar

 

Reader:

 

Dr. KianSoheil

 

 January 2011

 

 

 

(در فایل دانلودی نام نویسنده موجود است)

 

تکه هایی از متن پایان نامه به عنوان نمونه :

 

(ممکن است هنگام انتقال از فایل اصلی به داخل سایت بعضی متون به هم بریزد یا بعضی نمادها و اشکال درج نشود ولی در فایل دانلودی همه چیز مرتب و کامل است)

 

Abstract

 

 

 

The present thesis, adopting a poststructuralist approach, studies the narrative in Trout Fishing in America and In Watermelon Sugar, two novels by Richard Brautigan. The study benefits from deconstructive reading as one of the main foundations of poststructuralist narratology. Displaying deconstruction of important binary oppositions in these two narratives was the main concern of the thesis. The body of the thesis, chapter three and four, each is specified to the study of one of these two binaries. In chapter three, binary opposition of reality/fictionality is studied and the researcher shows how the boundary between these two is blurred. Language is also another tool through which the said binary is challenged. Chapter four studies the binary of past/present and includes subtitles such as narrative time, parody and binary opposition of presence/absence. Parodying particular genre or particular concepts is one of the outstanding characteristics of Brautigan’s works which is apparent in these two novels as well. The parodic nature of Trout Fishing in America is shown by pointing to the different references to American history and well known concepts. In In Watermelon Sugar, metanarrative of utopia collapses down and is replaced with the narratives, each capable of suggesting new definitions for utopia. Deconstruction of this metanarrative, rooted in history, literature and religion, is produced by deconstruction of another binary opposition that is presence/absence. The act of giving voice to the silent narrative or narratives within the text, as well as paying attention to the absent narrators releases the text from the dominancy of the present narrative and makes the hidden or silent narratives emerge.

 

Table of Contents

 

 

 

Abstract 2

 

Acknowledgment 3

 

CHAPTER ONE.. 7

 

INTRODUCTION.. 7

 

1. General Background. 7

1.1 Beat Generation. 9

 

. 10

 

. 10

 

.. 12

 

2. The Argument 13

 

2. Literature Review.. 16

 

2. Thesis Outline. 20

 

2. Methodology and Approach. 23

 

2. Definition of Literary Terms. 25

CHAPTER TWO.. 31

 

METHODOLOGY AND APPROACH.. 31

 

1. Historical Background of Deconstruction. 33

. 33

 

. 36

 

. 37

 

38

 

. 39

 

2. From Structuralist Narratology to Poststructuralist Narratology. 40

 

2. Derrida and Deconstruction. 45

.. 46

 

. 49

 

. 51

 

CHAPTER THREE.. 53

 

FICTIONALITY/ REALITY.. 53

 

1. Beyond Mimesis. 55

. 55

 

. 57

 

. 58

 

2. Practical Example of Metafiction. 59

. 59

 

62

 

. 64

 

. 67

 

. 68

 

. 72

 

3. In Watermelon Sugar, Reality in a Fantasy. 75

. 76

 

. 77

 

. 79

 

. 81

 

4. Conclusion. 82

CHAPTER FOUR.. 84

 

 

PARODY.. 84

 

1. Parody, Deconstruction of Past/Present 85

 

1. Trout Fishing in America, a Parody. 87

. 88

 

.. 89

 

. 92

 

3. In Watermelon Sugar as a Parody of Utopia. 93

. 93

 

. 94

 

. 94

 

. 95

 

. 97

 

. 98

 

.. 99

 

. 100

 

. 104

 

4. Conclusion. 108

CHAPTER FIVE.. 109

 

CONCLUSION.. 109

 

1. Chapters Review.. 109

 

1. Findings and Results. 116

 

1. Suggestion for Further Research. 119

Works Cited. 124

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CHAPTER ONE

 

INTRODUCTION

 

 

 

1.  General Background

 

American literature is indebted a great deal to the Beat Generation. In fact the shift towards the postmodern fiction and poetry wasn’t possible if it were not for the Beat Generation writers. Richard Brautigan is always considered as a writer emerging from this generation. Although he never committed himself to any label or literary movement, his writings is always considered as good examples of the American novel at the period. This thesis is going to analyze two of the early and most important novels of Brautigan.

 

Richard Brautigan is the author of ten novels, nine volumes of poetry and a collection of short stories. According to Companion to the American Novel he is best remembered for Trout Fishing in America which is considered as “a novel that revolutionized postmodern fiction and may becompared today to works of his contemporary, Ken Kesey, and viewed as the precursor to such younger writers as Tom Robbins” (176).

 

According to the same source, “Brautigan was born on January 20, 1935, in Tacoma, Washington, to Mary Lula Brautigan; apparently he never met his father, Bernard F. Brautigan, and his mother reportedly also abandoned her children from time to time”(176). At the age of 21 and after being hospitalized as a paranoid schizophrenic, he left Tacoma for San Francisco and met with Lawrence Ferlinghetti who ran a bookstore and small publisher house named City Lights. This bookstore was a gathering place for young poets and writers like Jack Kerouac and William S. Burroughs and Brautigan was soon get influenced by their radical views about literature. The first novel he wrote was Trout Fishing in America but the first novel that was published by him was named A Confederate General from Big Sur (1965). Trout Fishing in America hadn’t been published sooner than two years later in 1967 but when it was released its sudden success among the young American readers was almost a legend. From that time on Brautigan was appreciated by his young readers for his revolutionary style but the critical success didn’t come to him till his death. This American writer committed suicide in 1984 at the age of forty-nine. It was only in late 80s that the literary critics came to conclusion about his works and labeled them as good examples of early postmodern metafiction and cross–genre works. As mentioned above, Brautigan indebted much of his fame to The Beat Generation, a generation which Random House Dictionary, quoting Jack Kerouac, defines in this way: “those who were raised among the Second World War, those who probably due to the influence of the cold war had the tendency to habits and a desire for getting rid of social and sexual tensions”. So it would be useful to follow this movement from a closer view.

 

 

 

1.1 Beat Generation

 

The Beat Generation is a term coined first by an American journalist named Holmes. He was a friend of Kerouac and after reviewing his friend’s ideas published an article in The New York Times Magazine and introduced the term as a label for the young generation emerging from the post-war era in 1952. The term refers to a social life style inspired by careless living and drug addiction which was proper at the time and was a source of inspiration for a few young writers and poets that later were labeled as “beatniks”. These writers had a central group including three major writers, Alain Ginsberg, Jack Kerouac and William. S. Burroughs. Their main attitude in literature was rejection of fixed mainstream literary works as well as the American values in post-war era. They had been inspired a lot by the free life style of ordinary youth along with some effects from experimentation with drugs and an interest in Eastern spirituality. Jamie Russell in The Beat Generation writes:

 

The Beat phenomenon transformed American society. Not only was it the first expression of what we would now dub youth culture—paving the way for the hippies, punks, grungers and ravers as well as a thousand and one other styles—but it was also the first moment in Western culture when literature, music and film became cool. In other words, it was totally opposed to the boring adult world of work, money and responsibility. (7)

همگام با افزایش جمعیت، میزان تقاضای مواد غذایی نیز افزایش یافته و همین امر سبب استفاده بی رویه از کودهای شیمیایی و آلی جهت افزایش تولید محصول شده است (اردکانی و همکاران، ٢٠٠٥). سبزیجات سرشار از ویتامین، مواد معدنی و ترکیبات آنتی اکسیدان بوده که خواص ضد سرطانی آن به اثبات رسیده و سبب کاهش بیماریهای قلبی و عروقی می‌گردد؛ لذا اطمینان از سلامتی این ماده غذایی ارزشمند در جهت حفظ سلامت عمومی جامعه از اهمیت بسیاری برخوردار می‌باشد (الکساندر، ٢٠٠٨[1]؛ اردکانی و همکاران، ٢٠٠٥). مصرف بیش از حد کودهای نیتروژنه، موجبات جذب فراوان نیترات توسط گیاه را فراهم نموده و در این بین، سبزیجات مهم ترین منبع مواجهه محسوب شده که در جذب بیش از ٨٠ درصد نیترات دریافتی سهیم می‌باشد (توروپ کریسنسن[2]، ٢٠٠١).

 

نیترات تجمع یافته در سبزیجات طی یک سری واکنشهای شیمیایی در دستگاه گوارش انسان به نیتریت و نیتروز اسید تبدیل شده و در ترکیب با آمینهای نوع اول و دوم، موجبات تشکیل نیتروزآمین که مسبب ایجاد انواع سرطانها (معده، روده، مثانه، دهان)، ناقص الخلقه زایی، بیماری مت هموگلوبینما[3] در کودکان می‌باشد را فراهم می‌آورد (هورد و همکاران[4]، ٢٠٠٩؛ وارزینیاک و سزپانسکا[5]، ٢٠٠٨؛ توروپ کریسنسن، ٢٠٠١).

 

در انسان نیترات به سرعت از معده و ابتدای روده کوچک جذب شده و حداقل ٢٥ درصد آن به بزاق منتقل می‌شود. طوری که غلظت آن در بزاق ١٠ برابر پلاسما است. در افراد بزرگسال ٥ الی ٧ درصد از کل نیترات وارد شده به بدن به نیتریت تبدیل می‌شود در افراد خردسال و افرادی که به بیماریهای معده مبتلا هستند به دلیل pH پایین تر معده، میزان تبدیل به نیتریت بالاتر است. در افراد بزرگسال آنزیم مت هموگلوبین ردوکتاز تولید می‌شود که این ترکیب را به اکسی هموگلوبین تبدیل می‌کند (الکساندر، ٢٠٠٨).

 

شایان ذکر است که جذب نیترات در سبزیجات مختلف، متفاوت می‌باشد. میزان جذب نیترات توسط گیاه به عوامل گوناگونی از جمله

 مصرف کودهای ازته به مقدار و دفعات متعدد جهت حاصلخیزی خاک، شرایط رشد، شرایط آب و هوایی، فصل، دما، شدت نور، نحوه کشت (سنتی و گلخانهای)، زمان برداشت، تنش رطوبتی، گونه خاک، شرایط نگه داری محصول و pH، گیاهی، سن گیاه انبارداری پس از برداشت محصول متفاوت می‌باشد (بروجردنیا و همکاران، ٢٠٠٧؛ پاولو و اهالیوتیس[6]، ٢٠٠٧؛ رحمانی، ٢٠٠٦؛ دیک و همکاران[7]، ١٩٩٦؛ هانتر و همکاران[8]، ١٩٨٢).

 

یافته‌های لورنز[9] و براون[10] گویای این مطلب است که تجمع نیترات بسته به نوع سبزیجات و اندام مورد مصرف آن‌ ها متفاوت است (لورنز، ١٩٧٨؛ براون، ١٩٦٦). استانداردهای مختلفی در رابطه با حداکثر مجاز نیتریت و نیترات در سبزیجات وجود دارد. در سال ١٩٩٧ برای محدود کردن موانع تجاری در اتحادیه اروپا آیین‌نامه کمیسیون اروپایی (EC) به‌شماره ٩٧/١٩٤ بیشترین سطح نیترات را در بعضی از سبزیجات تنظیم کرد. حدود مجاز بر اساس فصل‌های سال متغیر بوده که بیشترین سطح مجاز نیترات در سبزیجات، فصل زمستان است (کمیسیون کشورهای اروپایی[11]، ١٩٩٧ و ١٩٩٩). در ایران حد مجاز نیترات در سبزیجات مختلف ارائه نشده، اما به طور میانگین حداکثر میزان نیتراتی که روزانه وارد بدن می‌گردد بایستی کمتر از ٦٥/٣ میلی گرم بر کیلوگرم وزن بدن باشد (کمیته‌ی کشورهای اروپایی، ١٩٩٩). با این وجود یک فرد ٧٠ کیلوگرمی نباید بیشتر از ٢٥٥ میلی‌گرم نیترات مصرف نماید. بنابراین باید غلظت نیترات را مخصوصاً برای افرادی که در رژیم غذایی آن‌ ها سبزیجات زیاد مصرف می‌شود به حداقل مقدار ممکن کاهش داد (سانتاماریا و همکاران[12]، ١٩٩٩؛ ماینارد و بارکر[13]، ١٩٧٩).

 

تاکنون مطالعات بسیاری در رابطه با وجود نیترات در سبزیجات مختلف صورت گرفته و به نتایج متفاوتی انجامیده است (آرکوت و لی[14]، ٢٠٠٨؛ ولزن و همکاران[15]، ٢٠٠٨؛ آیلین[16]، ٢٠٠٧؛ سبرانک و باکاس[17]، ٢٠٠٧؛ وارزینیاک و کویاتکاسکی[18]، ١٩٩٩). پختن و انجماد از جمله روش‌های نگهداری سبزیجات به شمار آمده که موجب تغییراتی در ترکیب شیمیایی و محتوی نیتریت و نیترات محصول می‌شود (کوروس و همکاران[19]، ٢٠١١؛ پراساد و آوینش چتی[20]، ٢٠٠٨؛ جاورسکا[21]، ٢٠٠٥؛ شیمادا و سانائه[22]، ٢٠٠٤).

 

در پژوهش حاضر، محتوی نیترات، نتیریت و اسید آسکوربیک موجود در ٥ نمونه سبزی (هویج، پیاز، سیب زمینی، ترب، سیر) اندازه گیری شد و اثر زمان نگهداری در یخچال و شرایط نگهداری (خام یا بخارپز) بر میزان این نمک‌ها ارزیابی گردید.

 

 

این تحقیق تلاشی برای تحلیل رمان اجاره نشینان1 (1971) در راستای نژادپرستی2 و تبعیض نژادی3 در آمریکا بین جمعیت مسیحی سیاه پوست و یهودی سفیدپوست میباشد و به تاثیر مواردی از جمله مذهب و ناسیونالیزم در روابط این دو گروه میپردازد. این رمان داستان دو نویسنده یهودی و سیاه پوست است که در یک آپارتمان اجاره ای با تفکرات ضد سیاه پوستی و یهودی ستیزی4 خود زندگی کرده و این افکار بر روابط بین گروهی، درون گروهی و همچنین روابط آنها با زنان تاثیر میگذارند. ایده های مختلف از منتقدین برجسته در زمینه نژادپرستی و همچنین بیگانه ترسی5 اخذ شده و از آن میان مرکز توجه بیشتر روی تاریخ روابط، مذهب، ناسیونالیزم و سیاست “حل شدن در جامعه“6 یهودیان، تصورات یهودیان از سیاهان و سیاهان از یهودیان همچنین باورهای سیاهان از سیاهان و یهودیان از یهودیان و در پایان اتحاد گذرای بین سیاه پوستان و یهودیان است که توسط منتقد و فعال حقوق مدنی آقای کرنل وست7 (1953) مطرح شده اند. تاثیر مستقیم موارد ذکرشده توسط آقای وست بر رفتار شخصیتهای رمان نشان میدهد که چگونه هر گروه قومی راهی متفاوت از دیگری برای ادغام در جامعه و فرار از گذشته سرکوب شده خود و همچنین فرار از “دیگری8 بودن” انتخاب کرده است. نحوه و سبک نوشتاری نویسنده که به صورت واگذاری نتیجه گیری به خواننده رمان میباشد، تصوری حاکی از امکان حل اختلافات بین دو گروه نژادی یادشده را عنوان مینماید.

 

واژه های کلیدی: نژادپرستی –  تبعیض نژادی – یهودی ستیزی – بیگانه ترسی – دیگری

 

Abstract

 

 

 

This research analyzes The Tenants (1971) within the context of ethnocentrism, specifically the segregation between two minority groups of Jews and Blacks in the USA, and the extent to which religion and nationalism, among other factors, have affected their interactions. The novel is a story of two writers, one Jewish, one Afro-American, living in a tenement and how Anti-Black and Anti-Semitic sentiments affect their relationship and their lives within their own community and their interactions with women. Different ideas on discrimination against minorities and xenophobia from racism critics are presented; among them there is a focus on History of the Confrontation, Religion, Nationalism including Jews Assimilation policy, Conceptions of Blacks from Jews and vice versa together with Conceptions of Blacks from Blacks and Jews from Jews and finally the transitory Alliance between the two cultures which are proposed by the civil right activist and critic, Cornel West (1953). There is proof of direct effect of these factors introduced by West on the characters and how these points lead them to choose a different way of overcoming their suppressed past and to avoid remaining the Other. The open-endedness factor of this masterpiece from the beginning to the end of the novel gives a sense of resolution between the two races to the reader.

 

 

 

Key Terms: Ethnocentrism, Segregation, Anti-Semitism, Xenophobia, Other

 

 

 

 

 

Table of Contents

 

 

 

Chapter I

 

Introduction 8

 

1.1. General Background 8

 

1.2. Statement of the Problem 12

 

1.3. Objectives and Significance of the Study 14

 

1.3.1. Hypothesis 14

 

1.3.2. Purpose of the Study 17

 

1.3.3. Research Questions 17

 

1.4. Materials and Methodology 18

 

1.5. Definition of Key Terms 20

 

1.6. Motivation and Delimitation 23

 

1.7. Organization of the Study 25

 

Chapter II

 

Ethnocentrism and Jew-Black Discriminations 26

 

2.1. Black’s Anti-Semitism and Jew’s Anti-Black Racism 28

 

2.1.1. History of Jew-Black Confrontation 29

 

2.1.2. The Role of Religion in Jew-Black Antagonism 32

 

2.1.3. The Civil Rights Movement and Transitory Alliance 35

 

2.2. Jew-Black Social Life in America and the Conceptions 39

 

2.2.1. Jews-Blacks and White Christian Society 40

 

2.2.2. Jewish Nationalism 44

 

2.2.3. Black Nationalism 47

 

2.2.4. Blacks Conceptions of Jews and vice versa 51

 

2.2.5. Blacks Conceptions of Blacks 54

 

2.2.6. Jews Conceptions of Jews 56

 

Chapter III

 

The Tenants and Ethnocentrism 60

 

3.1. Jews Social Life 63

 

3.1.1. Lesser as a Jew 65

 

3.1.2. Lesser as a Writer 69

 

3.1.3. Lesser as a White 74

 

3.1.4. Lesser as a Boyfriend 76

 

3.2. Blacks Social Life 78

 

3.2.1. Willie as a Black 80

 

3.2.2. Willie as a Writer 84

 

3.2.3. Willie as a Boyfriend 89

 

Chapter IV

 

The Tenants and Jew-Black Communication 91

 

4.1. Jew-Black Conflicts and The Tenants 91

 

4.2. Jew-Black Alliances and The Tenants 95

 

4.3. Happy Ending and Alliance 102

 

4.4. Sad Ending and Assassinations 106

 

Chapter V

 

Conclusion 113

 

5.1. Summing Up 113

 

5.2. Findings 115

 

5.3. Suggestions for Further Research 121

 

 

 

Works Cited 123

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Chapter I

 

Introduction

 

 

 

1.1. General Background

 

Bernard Malamud (April 26, 1914 – March 18, 1986), a great prolific American Jewish writer of 20th century, was born into a Russian-Jewish immigrant family. His major concern in most of his works is the problem of the Jews in world and the prevalent racial issues of his era. Professionally speaking, being a Pulitzer Prize for his novel against discriminations on Jews, The Fixer (1966) is one of his life time achievements.

 

His novels include the tragic-comic element and pessimism that Malamud uses with his unique style of writing, displaying the challenges of modern urban life with focus on marginalized characters who struggle to survive through love and forgiveness rooted in Judeo-Christian beliefs (Pinsker, 205-211). The Tenants (1971) is one of his famous novels which revolves around the Black-Jewish relationship in 20th century USA.

 

Specifically speaking, The Tenants is the story of two writers, one Jewish and the other Black, about their conflicts and communication in a tenement located in New York with no appropriate conditions for living. The novel opens with Harry Lesser (Jewish writer) having spent nine and half years finishing his book and refusing to leave the tenement belonging to Mr. Levenspiel until his last chapter of the novel is completed.

 

Lesser is not the only character from a minority group settling that tenement. While he is following his routine life of writing his novel, second character from Black minority appears and from that point on their interaction triggers a latent fear and hatred which come to its zenith in a tragic scene in one of the endings of the novel. In this pathetic scene both writers become victims of each other’s hatred ending up, in one of the endings of the book, killed by one another and Lesser’s ten year manuscript burned by Willie (The black character). And in the other ending, which is a happy one and where multiracial marriages take place, a more detailed consideration is required.

 

Though created by Malamud’s creative and imaginative mind, the dramatic frictions of two main characters throughout the story were the direct reflection of the social and political current salient and challenging in Malamud’s life time. The concepts that are worth consideration in The Tenants are Black Anti-Semitism and Jewish Anti-Black Racism in American Society with its multicultural setting and how the construction of American identity in the modern era for Jews and Blacks is affected by ethnocentrism, religion and the history behind the two cultures. To grasp the inner atmosphere of the story and what had occupied Malamud’s mind, a cursory glance at racism history seems helpful.

 

Racism and its related movements in USA are well known through the world. The Blacks, the Jews and other minority groups have struggled to make themselves free from the racists’ burdens and this created an atmosphere of alliance and support between minority groups and encouraged the leaders of each minority speak for the right of not only his race but also other minorities. Therefore, it is not strange to hear that Jewish leaders and Black revolutionary vanguards defended each other in the face of White-Christian mainstream. Despite this unity, after 1950s some changes and shifts began to burgeon. The Jews trend in surrendering part of their identity to achieve the mainstream approval was one of the starting points of their difference with the Blacks. They continued to develop socially and economically and even as writers they devoted part of White-American literary canon to

 themselves and their works found readers among White Christian people. They accepted to obey the grammatical rules defined by mainstream while black writers were completely reluctant to surrender even their writing style.

 

Quite contrary with the Jews were the Blacks who detested losing their identity in favor of getting the Whites’ admission. Their writers, as mentioned above, continued to follow their own language, style of writing and vocabulary which were different from those of the Whites. Following the story, reader would find the same tendency in Lesser, the Jewish writer, and Willie, the Black writer. Willie is abhorrent to accept the grammatical rules of the mainstream. That is why while reading and revising Willie’s manuscript, Lesser criticizes him for not following the regular writing rules and this shows Lesser’s acceptance of mainstream rules and his idea of Willie’s wrong deed not to obey it.

 

Not only in writing but also in most of their life affairs, the Blacks continued to ask for their rights. Not accepting the Whites’ norms they remained the others while the Jews came free of being the other. The chains of alliance were broken and these two minority groups stood in two opposite poles and hatred emerged in their daily life interaction. The Tenants is a meticulous observation of these two writers’ reaction to each other and their emotional and psychological response. Willie releases his anger and terror in his innovative writing wherein he kills and even eats the Jews including Lesser several times.

 

These concepts and Jews and Blacks Nationalism as marginalized figures in America and the relationship between them, have been the subject of interest of many critics; among them the African-American critic Cornel Ronald West’s (1953) ideas are worth consideration. West is a Black-American civil-right activist addressing such issues as multiculturalism, racism, socialism and focusing on African-American studies. He contributed to post-1950s civil right movement and led most of his activities around gender, race, and class in American society and showed his interest in these fields from early youth. West’s school of thought circles around the history of discrimination, the peace moments between two cultures and the roots of hatred in regard to many factors including religion. West calls America a “Racist Patriarchal” (Race Matters, 90) and as he believes in one of his bestselling books, Race Matters (1993) “As long as black people are viewed as a them the burden falls on blacks to do all the cultural and moral work necessary for healthy race relations. The implication is that only certain Americans can define what it means to be American—and the rest must simply fit in” (West, 3).

 

In West ideas, Black inferiority and self-degradation facing White settlers superiority, undermined their genuine feeling of true citizens, as a result a dormant feeling of fear, fake identity and hatred emerged to define their everyday life. A good example of what West is focusing on is seen in the relationship between two characters in The Tenants. As he indicates, “Recent debates on the state of black-Jewish relations have generated more heat than light. Instead of critical dialogue and respectful exchange, people have witnessed several bouts of vulgar name-calling and self-righteous finger-pointing” (West, Race Matters, 71). The reader faces the same matter at one ending of The Tenants as Willie calls Lesser “Blood suckin Jew Nigger hater” and Lesser calls Willie “Anti-Semitic Ape” (The Tenants, 90).

 

Reading The Tenants in the light of Cornel West’s ideas makes the researcher interested to appoint them to this novel. What makes this analysis more interesting is the two very different endings of the novel which proposes more questions and more considerations of the two characters’ relationship with one another and with other people in the society.

 

 

 

1.2. Statement of the Problem

 

America is a multicultural country and home of a variety of ethnic groups with different cultures and religions, so it seems that friction and collision between minorities is a common problem there and has been the subject matter of many surveys and novels. The Blacks and the Jews are two groups which have been experiencing this tough situation from 1950s on. It was before 1950s that there was short alliance between the two cultures at the time of The Civil Rights Movements in America toward the freedom for Africans and other marginal figures but the discrimination factor and ethnocentrism has continued to be felt and lived through the stereotypes believed by people up to the present time. What makes the matter even more complex is how the members of each marginal group as Jews and Blacks feel and treat each other, the conceptions they have of one another and the self-degradation beliefs in their relationships.

 

As the former Harvard lecturer on history and literature, Edmund Spevack (1963-2001), quotes from the African American civil right activist William Edward Burghardt Du Bois (1868-1963) in his essay on “Racism and Multiculturalism in Bernard Malamud’s The Tenants” (1997) “W.E.B. Du Bois warned in 1903 that the main problem of the twentieth century would be the color line; indeed, the burning issues of economic, social, and cultural inequality among racial groups in America were not solved, but became ever more complex and urgent” (Spevack, 33). Besides,  he cites Henry Louis Gates (1950), the African American writer and literary critic in the same essay, “We might as well argue that the problem of the twenty-first century will be the problem of ethnic differences, as these conspire with complex differences in color, gender, and class” (Spevack, 50).

 

As pointed out before, in the twentieth century and also at the present time, the main problem of such multinational country as America is how to deal with the difficulties and tensions raised between the minorities like those of Black and Jewish people. The world of The Tenants is indicative of this modern social and political phenomenon that has cast a shadow over the life of two main characters, Lesser and Willie, through story. As West indicates in his book Race Matters,

 

Black anti-Semitism and Jewish anti-black racism are real, and both are as profoundly American as cherry pie. There was no golden age in which blacks and Jews were free of tension and friction. Yet there was a better age when the common histories of oppression and degradation of both groups served as a springboard for genuine empathy and principled alliances. Since the late sixties, black-Jewish relations have reached a nadir (Race Matters, 71).

 

 

 

Although  very few and very short, there are moments in the novel when two characters seem friendly and sympathetic toward each other, for example when Willie gives his manuscripts to Lesser to read and revise, or inviting Lesser to the party, when Lesser hides Willie from the owner of the tenement, who is also a Jew, when Willie supports Lesser from the physical attack of his friends and many other instances from novel’s close reading that researcher thinks as likely to be seen in great accordance with Cornel West’s ideas about short alliance.

 

Apart from the conflicts mentioned previously, Malamud’s style in development of his writing and characters are to be analyzed which includes the clashes between two marginal cultures of Jews and Blacks, the history and roots behind them in the account of Cornel West ideas and how the roots affect the relationship between the two characters in novel The Tenants, the African-American relationship, (or the Black-Jewish relationship, the term used by West), their bigotry toward each other and their hard times living together and with other people in the society are going to be highlighted.